Appendix C: Resources
Protocols/Standards Reviewed for Public Data Sharing Practices
| Protocol, Standard, or Guideline | Issuing Body | CDR Pathways Included | Last Updated |
|---|---|---|---|
| Biogenic carbon capture and storage | Isometric | BECCS | September 30, 2024 |
| Subsurface Biomass Carbon Removal and Storage | Isometric | BiCRS | February 4, 2025 |
| Biomass Geological Storage | Isometric | BiCRS | February 4, 2025 |
| Bio-oil Geological Storage | Isometric | BiCRS | February 4, 2025 |
| Biochar Production and Storage | Isometric | BiCRS | April 25, 2025 |
| Enhanced weathering in agriculture | Isometric | Enhanced Mineralization | February 4, 2025 |
| Open System Ex-situ mineralization | Isometric | Enhanced Mineralization | May 1, 2025 |
| Direct Air Capture | Isometric | DACS | May 1, 2025 |
| Biochar | Puro | BiCRS | June 2025 |
| Carbonated Materials | Puro | Enhanced Mineralization | May 2023 |
| Enhanced Rock Weathering | Puro | Enhanced Mineralization | October 2024 |
| Terrestrial Storage of Biomass | Puro | BiCRS | November 2023 |
| VM0043 CO₂ Utilization in Concrete Production | Verra | Enhanced Mineralization | December 23, 2024 |
| VM0044 Biochar Utilization in Soil and non-Soil Applications | Verra | BiCRS | June 27, 2025 |
| VMD0059 CO₂ Capture from Bioenergy, v1.0 | Verra | BECCS | April 22, 2025 |
| Direct Air Carbon Dioxide Capture and Geological Storage | Government of Canada | DACS | January 2025 |
| Guidelines for Carbon Sink Certification for artisan biochar production | Carbon Standards International | BiCRS | June 15, 2024 |
| US and Canada Biochar Protocol | Climate Action Reserve | BiCRS | March 19, 2024 |
| Carbon mineralization using reactive mineral waste | Gold Standard | Enhanced Mineralization | May 28, 2025 |
| Biomass Fermentation with Carbon Capture and Geologic Storage | Gold Standard | BECCS | May 28, 2025 |
Bibliography
Alcalde, Juan, Stephanie Flude, Mark Wilkinson, et al. 2018. "Estimating Geological CO₂ Storage Security to Deliver on Climate Mitigation." Nature Communications 9 (1): 2201. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04423-1.
Blackford, Jerry, Jonathan M. Bull, Melis Cevatoglu, et al. 2015. "Marine Baseline and Monitoring Strategies for Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS)." International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 38 (July): 221–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2014.10.004.
Bui, Mai, and Niall Mac Dowell, eds. Greenhouse Gas Removal Technologies, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781839165245.
Bodie Cabiyo. 2022. "Accounting for Short-Term Durability in Carbon Offsetting." Carbon Direct, February 28. https://www.carbon-direct.com/insights/accounting-for-short-term-durability-in-carbon-offsetting.
Carbon 180. 2024. Biomass Carbon Removal & Storage. https://carbon180.org/pathway/biomass-carbon-removal-and-storage/.
Carbon Direct. 2024. The Carbon Credit Lifecycle Explained. https://www.carbon-direct.com/insights/the-carbon-credit-lifecycle-explained.
Chiquier, Solene, Piera Patrizio, Mai Bui, Nixon Sunny, and Niall Mac Dowell. 2022. "A Comparative Analysis of the Efficiency, Timing, and Permanence of CO₂ Removal Pathways." Energy & Environmental Science 15 (10): 4389–403. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EE01021F.
Dees, John P., William Joe Sagues, Ethan Woods, Hannah M. Goldstein, A. J. Simon, and Daniel L. Sanchez. 2023. "Leveraging the Bioeconomy for Carbon Drawdown." Green Chemistry 25 (8): 2930–57. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2GC02483G.
Deutz, Sarah, and André Bardow. 2021. "Life-Cycle Assessment of an Industrial Direct Air Capture Process Based on Temperature–Vacuum Swing Adsorption." Nature Energy 6 (2): 203–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-020-00771-9.
EPA. 2023. "eGRID." https://www.epa.gov/egrid/data-explorer.
Faber, G. 2025. Direct Air Capture: Definition and Company Analysis. U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2025-01/FECM_Direct%20Air%20Capture%20Definition%20and%20Company%20Analysis%20Report.pdf.
Faber, Grant, Andrew Ruttinger, Till Strunge, et al. 2022. "Adapting Technology Learning Curves for Prospective Techno-Economic and Life Cycle Assessments of Emerging Carbon Capture and Utilization Pathways." Frontiers in Climate 4 (April): 820261. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2022.820261.
GHG Protocol. 2015. "Greenhouse Gas Protocol. Scope 2 Guidance." https://ghgprotocol.org/scope-2-guidance.
Gold Standard. 2025. "Biomass Fermentation with Carbon Capture and Geologic Storage." https://globalgoals.goldstandard.org/440-ccs-biomass-fermentation-with-carbon-capture-and-geologic-storage/.
Google. 2024. "Google Data Centers. 24/7 Clean Energy – Data Centers." https://www.google.com/about/datacenters/cleanenergy/.
Herzog, Howard J., and Mac Dowell, Niall. 2025. Carbon Removal. The MIT Press. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Honegger, Matthias, and David Reiner. 2018. "The Political Economy of Negative Emissions Technologies: Consequences for International Policy Design." Climate Policy 18 (3): 306–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2017.1413322.
IEA. n.d. Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage. https://www.iea.org/energy-system/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage/bioenergy-with-carbon-capture-and-storage.
IETA. 2024. GUIDELINES FOR HIGH INTEGRITY USE OF CARBON CREDITS.
International Organization for Environmental Management. 2006. "Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Framework." ISO: Geneva.
International Organization for Standardization. 2006. "ISO 14064."
Joppa, Lucas, Amy Luers, Elizabeth Willmott, S. Julio Friedmann, Steven P. Hamburg, and Rafael Broze. 2021. "Microsoft's Million-Tonne CO₂-Removal Purchase — Lessons for Net Zero." Nature 597 (7878): 629–32. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02606-3.
Karunarathne, Sumudu, Sara Andrenacci, Andres Carranza-Abaid, et al. 2025. "Review on CO₂ Removal from Ocean with an Emphasis on Direct Ocean Capture (DOC) Technologies." Separation and Purification Technology 353 (January): 128598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.128598.
Krevor, Samuel, Martin J. Blunt, Sally M. Benson, et al. 2015. "Capillary Trapping for Geologic Carbon Dioxide Storage – From Pore Scale Physics to Field Scale Implications." International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 40 (September): 221–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2015.04.006.
Larry Mason, Bruce Lippke, and Elaine Oneil. 2019. Baselines, Boundaries and Forest Carbon Conundrums. Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial Materials. https://corrim.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Mason-et-al-2019-_-Boundaries-and-Baselines_as-submitted-Dec-2019.pdf.
Lydia P. Olander, Brian C. Murray, Marc Steininger, and Holly Gibbs. 2006. "Establishing Credible Baselines for Quantifying Avoided Carbon Emissions from Reduced Deforestation and Forest Degradation." Coalition for Rainforest Nations.
Mac Dowell, Niall, David M. Reiner, and R. Stuart Haszeldine. 2022. "Comparing Approaches for Carbon Dioxide Removal." Joule 6 (10): 2233–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.09.005.
Markusson, Nils. 2022. "Natural Carbon Removal as Technology." WIREs Climate Change 13 (2): e767. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.767.
Microsoft-Carbon Direct. 2024. "2024 Criteria for High-Quality Carbon Dioxide Removal." https://www.carbon-direct.com/research-and-reports/criteria-for-high-quality-carbon-dioxide-removal.
Minx, Jan C., et al. "Negative Emissions-Part 1: Research Landscape and Synthesis." Environmental Research Letters 13, no. 6 (May 22, 2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabf9b.
MIT Climate Portal. 2023. Enhanced Rock Weathering. November 9. https://climate.mit.edu/explainers/enhanced-rock-weathering.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda. National Academies Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.17226/25259.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. A Research Strategy for Ocean-Based Carbon Dioxide Removal and Sequestration. National Academies Press, 2022. https://doi.org/10.17226/26278.
Nordahl, Sarah L., Rebecca J. Hanes, Kimberley K. Mayfield, Corey Myers, Sarah E. Baker, and Corinne D. Scown. 2024. "Carbon Accounting for Carbon Dioxide Removal." One Earth 7 (9): 1494–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.08.012.
Patti Smith and Colin McCormick, PhD. 2025. Advanced Power Emission Accounting Methodologies for Large Electricity Load. https://insights.carbon-direct.com/hubfs/ungated-reports/carbon-direct-advanced-power-emission-accounting-methodologies.pdf.
Prado, Augustin, and Niall Mac Dowell. 2023. "The Cost of Permanent Carbon Dioxide Removal." Joule 7 (4): 700–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.03.006.
Fuss, Sabine, et al. "Negative Emissions-Part 2: Costs, Potentials and Side Effects." Environmental Research Letters 13, no. 6 (May 22, 2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabf9f.
Rabiu, Kazeem O., Lidong Han, and Diganta Bhusan Das. 2017. "CO₂ Trapping in the Context of Geological Carbon Sequestration." In Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10124-1.
Richards, Kenneth R, and Grant Eric Huebner. 2012. "Evaluating Protocols and Standards for Forest Carbon-Offset Programs, Part A: Additionality, Baselines and Permanence." Carbon Management 3 (4): 393–410. https://doi.org/10.4155/cmt.12.38.
Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering. Greenhouse Gas Removal. 2018. https://royalsociety.org/news-resources/projects/greenhouse-gas-removal.
Rudy Kahsar, Annina Sartor. 2025. "Following the Carbon: A New Lens on the Carbon Dioxide Removal Ecosystem." RMI. https://rmi.org/following-the-carbon-a-new-lens-on-the-carbon-dioxide-removal-ecosystem/.
Schenuit, Felix, Matthew J. Gidden, Miranda Boettcher, et al. 2023. "Secure Robust Carbon Dioxide Removal Policy through Credible Certification." Communications Earth & Environment 4 (1): 349. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-01014-x.
Sylvera. 2022. Permanence in Carbon Credits: Why It Matters, and How to Evaluate It. December 16. https://www.sylvera.com/blog/permanence-carbon-credits.
Teo, Hoong Chen, Nicole Hui Li Tan, Qiming Zheng, et al. 2023. "Uncertainties in Deforestation Emission Baseline Methodologies and Implications for Carbon Markets." Nature Communications 14 (1): 8277. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44127-9.
The Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market. 2024. "Core Carbon Principles Assessment Framework and Procedure." https://icvcm.org/assessment-framework/.
US DOE - Fossil Energy and Carbon Management. 2023. Carbon Dioxide Removal. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-07/Carbon-Dioxide-Removal-FAQs_7.8.22.pdf.
Wilcox, J., B. Kolosz, and J. Freeman, eds. Carbon Dioxide Removal Primer. Creative Commons, 2021. https://cdrprimer.org.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resources Institute, eds. 2004. The Greenhouse Gas Protocol: A Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard. Rev. ed. World Business Council for Sustainable Development; World Resources Institute.
Zakkour, Paul, and Greg Cook. "Measurement, Reporting and Verification and Accounting for Carbon Dioxide Removal in the Context of Both Project-based Approaches and National Greenhouse Gas Inventories." IEAGHG Technical Report 2024-09, October 2024. https://ieaghg.org/publications/measurement-reporting-and-verification-and-accounting-for-carbon-dioxide-removal.